Page 125 - 2022(1) International Confusion Studies

118 H. He

However, the study of the humanities with morality at its core was also
essential for scholar-officials. It was the basis, the threshold, a mandatory
qualification. For scholar-officials, their most basic and fundamental identity
came from their intellect. If they were not well versed, they would have no
position in society. Similarly, Confucianism is a study of morality. During
the Western Han Dynasty, after having initially been proposed by Dong Zhong-
shu (董仲舒 179 B.C.E.–104 B.C.E.), the slogan “Respecting Only Confucianism”
was adopted by the imperial court, and Confucianism became the sole topic of
imperial examinations for selection and appointment of officials. It became the
guiding principle of the ruling class and the dominant ideology in society. The
emphasis on humanities led to the flourishing of art and culture in China, and
therefore produced a society where learning was respected. The tripartite role
of Chinese scholar-officials reflected their position in politics, economics and
culture, manifested China’s key socio-political characteristics, and cultural
advancement.
A Confucian scholar had to properly handle his relations with his peers,
monarchy, and the people in general. In a perspective of past 2000 years, whom
did they fare best?
Confucian scholars excelled in “self-cultivation”. First, they regarded
Confucianism as a study of self-improvement, from which they drew courage and
learned to be self-restraint. Such study was a process of self-reflection and
learning, and brought together a group, a system, and an all-encompassing mood.
In this process, they discussed ethics, their understanding of Confucian teachings,
and self-cultivation, and, at the same time, being nourished from literature and
arts.
Secondly, it is an education of the people. It can be said with certainty that
the system of assessment and imperial examinations greatly promoted the
development of social culture and ethics, encouraged people to learn to read and
write. In some regions, and during prosperous reigns, learning was popular and
respected by society. Noticeable cultural improvement was made in certain
far-flung border regions. However, literacy levels and public hygiene in these areas
were not all enhanced. It was particularly the case during periods of economic
crises or wars, when survival came first.
Thirdly, it exerted influence on power. As a doctrine for governance,
Confucianism served as a restraining force on the ruler. Emperors were brought up
in an environment where Confucian doctrines dominated the Chinese culture.
However, the power of officials was, after all, subject to that of the ruler, so there
was hardly a balance of power. The supremacy of emperors became more apparent
after the Yuan (1206–1368) and Ming (1368–1644) dynasties.