Page 67 - 2022(1) International Confusion Studies

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things, treat each other as kin and brothers. Other creatures and things, being endowed with a
less sound and incomplete nature (性), are not of our kind. Though less noble than humans,
their body and nature are born from Heaven and Earth. On this they are no different from us
and should be treated as our equals. (“Explanation of the Western Inscription”)

One’s “equals” are akin to one’s friends or neighbours. In traditional Confucian
thinking, there is variation in degrees of love, from that for “brothers” to “equals.”
As “the benevolent embrace all with their love,” this love extends to humanity and
all creatures and living things; but first and foremost, to fellow humans.
Zhu Xi went on to say:

As all men are brothers, so all under Heaven is one family, and the Middle Kingdom as one
person … Thus all things that exist between Heaven and Earth—be they mobile or vegetarian,
sentient or otherwise—should be allowed to grow as their nature dictates, and according to
their own way. (“Explanation of the Western Inscription”)

Confucian Thought thus encompasses not only the benevolent notion of “all under
Heaven as a family and the Middle Kingdom (nation) as one person,” but also, that
which embraces all creatures and living things. The notion of benevolence man-
ifests itself not only in such universal virtues as loving one’s country and inter-
nationalism, but significantly, in ecological ethics that inspire environmental
protection.
There was a noted debate between Cheng Yi and Yang Shi (杨时 1053–1135) over
interpretations of “the Western Inscription.” Yang, a Song-dynasty scholar and
student of the Cheng brothers, commented on its elaboration of ontological
existence (体), and yet its disregard for its application (用), which could lead
to misconceptions and the misleading notion of Mozi’s(墨子 ca.476 B.C.E.–
ca.390 B.C.E.) idea of “loving all equally.” Regarding Yang’s view as misconstrued,
in his reply, Cheng Yi questioned:

“The Western Inscription” proposes oneness while allowing differentiation, whereas Mozi
emphasizes all individuals without differentiation (Note: Loving others as one’s own elders or
young, implies oneness, whereas loving all equally, without differentiation, in essence leans
toward individuality). While differentiation may lead to selfishness overshadowing benev-
olence, loving all equally may lead to generality, without righteousness. Uphold oneness
while allowing differentiation to prevent selfishness, which is the core of benevolence. Being
obsessed with loving all equally without differentiation, may fail to recognize (the sacredness
of) the father, and the loss of righteousness. (“Reply to Yang Shi’s Letter on the Western
Inscription” in Vol. 9 of Writings of the Cheng Brothers, 《二程文集》
)
With this comment on the problems of differentiation and selfishness undermining
benevolence, it was made clear that if benevolence is confined to circles of family
and kinship, it will be the triumph of selfishness, not benevolence. The Confucian