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28 J. Liu and X. Tong

(子产 ?–522 B.C.E.) say, ‘Rituals are the norms of Heaven, the code of Earth, and the rules of
conduct for the common people.’” (Chen & Hu, 2015, pp. 1341–1343)
Du Yu’s(杜预 222–285) annotation reads: “Jing signifies the constant rule of Dao.”
As a noun, jing refers to the invariable rules of Dao; it is also the origin of the
Chinese idiom tianjing diyi (天经地义, natural rules and orderliness). In this sense,
it is commensurate with the Western philosophical term, metaphysics, which re-
fers to the fundamental nature of existence, or eternal truth.
However, the second meaning of jing is different from the Western meta-
physical context. The second usage of jing functions as a verb, meaning
“to govern,” or “to regulate.” More examples can be found for this usage below.

(1) In Zuo’s Commentary on The Spring and Autumn Annals
[During the Spring and Autumn period, Duke Zhuang of Zheng (郑庄公 757
B.C.E.–701 B.C.E.) attacked the State of Xu (许国)for transgressing the law.]It
may be remarked that Duke Zhuang of Zheng was acting in accordance with the
rites in this matter. The rites are the instrument for governing a country and
regulating its people properly, and for ensuring prosperity for future genera-
tions (Chen & Hu, 2015, p. 45).
The exegesis of Kong Yingda (孔颖达 574–648) reads: “Jing means to arrange,
to put right, as seen in The Book of Songs. In addition, jing means to begin.” In this
example, jing can be seen as a verb, meaning “to commence and manage.”
(2) Ling t’ae
When he planned the commencement of the marvellous tower,
He planned it, and defined it;
And the people in crowds undertook the work,
And in no time completed it.
When he planned the commencement, (he said), ‘Be not in a hurry’;
But the people came as if they were his children. (Legge, 2011, p. 695)

In Mao’s Annotations on The Book of Songs (《毛传 》), Mao Heng (毛亨 dates
unknown) writes, “Jing is meant to measure.” Kong Yingda’s exegesis reads: “The
poem says that King Wen’s great virtue won the people’s hearts. When they
moved to Feng, he had people survey and measure the landscape to begin building
an altar for the spirits. After the location was set it was then measured and marked
off” (Mao et al., 2013, pp. 1500–1501).
Here jing is the equivalent of the word duo (度), while shi (始) is the same as zhi
(治). The Qing-dynasty scholar Wang Yinzhi (王引之 1766–1834) has provided
adequate proof: