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Key Concepts in Chinese Thought and Culture 177

requirements set by the rites. If a person can follow the middle way by not going too
far or falling short, then he has achieved the virtue of “the Golden Mean.”

2.5 Proactive Versus Prudent (狂狷)

Proactive and prudent were used by Confucius to refer to two opposing attitudes
and styles of behavior. Proactive persons tend to be radical and will not make any
compromise in upholding moral principles and justice. Prudent persons, on the
other hand, tend to be cautious and ready to make compromise but without
sacrificing moral integrity. Confucius believed that the ideal conduct in life is
keeping to the mean, neither going too far nor falling short. While proactive and
prudent may be extreme to some extent, both have their own advantages as both
adhere to moral principles and justice.

3 Literature and Art

3.1 You Will not Be Able to Talk Properly With Others Without
Studying The Book of Songs (不学 《诗》，无以言).

In Confucius’ time, how well one understood The Book of Songs was a sign of his
social status and cultural attainment. If one did not study it, one would find it
difficult to improve one’s ability to express oneself and to converse with people of
high social status. Confucius’ elaboration on the relationship between studying
The Book of Songs and social interaction actually expounds on the importance of
literature in education.

3.2 The Six Basic Elements (六义)

The six basic elements were drawn from The Book of Songs by scholars of the Han
Dynasty to promote the state’s governance, social enlightenment, and education.
The six are: feng (ballad), which offers an insight into the influence of a sage’s
thinking on ordinary folk customs; fu (narrative), which directly states the good-
ness or evilness of court politics; bi (analogy), which criticizes mildly the in-
adequacies of court politics by comparing one thing with another; xing
(association), which extols a virtue by making an indirect reference to some other
laudable thing; ya (court hymn), which shows the proper way of acquitting oneself
as a norm for posterity to follow; and song (eulogy), which praises and promotes