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unified by rites, they will have a sense of shame, and moreover will behave cor-
rect.” We can definitely relate “guiding the people by virtue” to “teaching them by
moral” from “The Black Robes” in The Book of Rites (《礼记 · 缁衣》), and interpret
de (德) as socially recognized “virtue (美德)” or “moral (道德)” (Liu, 1990, p. 41),
rather than the ruler’s moral appeal as suggested by “governing by means of his
virtue.” Similarly, the sentence of “guiding by means of virtue” can be understood
as the ruler using his moral behavior as a standard to guide the people. Zhu Xi said,
“To guide is to lead, meaning to take the lead.” (Zhu, 1983, p. 54; Li, 2004, p. 50).
Although de bears the meaning of “moral standard (道德标准),” it refers to the
“moral model (道德典范)” and its influence radiating from inside, as reflected in
the ruler, but it is not some norms outside the person, like “laws” and “rites,”
which are constraints imposed upon people from outside.

4.2.2 “Rule by Rites” and “Rule of Rites” (礼治)

For Confucians, the function of “rites” was to regulate and straighten out (“On
Rites” of Family Analects of Confucius,《孔子家语 · 论礼》) social relations, so as
to differentiate the top of society from the bottom, but with family affection, dis-
tinguishing those with stronger kinship and those with weaker kinship, and thus
form an effective social and political mechanism. “Rites” bear the sense of family
affection. This is because “rites” were external rules that integrated and socialized
social members. Confucius commented, “If you don’t study rites, you can’t take
your stand (in der society).” (“Ji Shi” of The Analects,《论语 · 季氏》) and “If you
don’t know about rites, you can’t take your stand (in der society).” (“Yong Ye” of
The Analects，《论语 · 雍也》) To the rulers, “rites” were outlines of governing the
state, and the standards that could be followed. Confucius clearly said: “Make rites
for the state.” (“Xian Jin” of The Analects, 《论语 · 先进》).
Of course, “rites” were not only normative etiquette, rules and order, but also
contained values, viz. “moral” or moral standards. They were a comprehensive
system of moral norms and moral values. Social members would naturally inter-
nalize the moral values contained in “rites” in the process of practicing them. In
this sense, the Confucian “rule by rites” was a means of governance, “If the
behavior of the people is unified by rites,” as mentioned by Confucius. At the same
time, it is the result of rites, which means the “rule of rites.”
“Rule by rites” and “rule of rites” could not be achieved unless the ruler set the
5
public a role model in “obeying the rites.” As Confucius observed, “When the ruler
loves rites, the people dare not to be irreverent.” (“Zi Lu” of The Analects,《论语 ·

5 Only when people always act according to certain norms, such as “rites,” that is, the continuous
repetition and reproduction of certain behaviors can the rule of rites be formed..