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72 J. Ren

binds all the “principles” together. Here three implications are important: first,
self-cultivation is the foundation; second, both the Son of Heaven and the common
people must all cultivate themselves; third, differences in social status are not a
consideration. On the one hand, self-cultivation is pivotal in the “eight principles,”
which is why Zhu Xi said,

Studying things to acquire knowledge, being sincere in thought, rectifying one’s heart, and
cultivating oneself are meant to expound illustrious virtue, while regulating one’s family
affairs, governing the state well, and ensuring peace to all under heaven are meant to renew
the nature of people. (Zhu, 1983, p. 4)
On the other, in the moral ordering of the “principles,”“Studying things to acquire
knowledge, being sincere in thought, and rectifying one’s heart are the means to
cultivating oneself, while regulating one’s family affairs, governing the state well,
and ensuring peace to all under heaven refer to appropriate actions in practice.”
(Zhu, 1983, p. 4)
These two separate statements both explain the major significance of “self-
cultivation.” The first explains the status and pivotal role of “self-cultivation”
within the “eight principles,” and then how it relates to the “three cardinal guides.”
Studying things, acquiring knowledge, sincerity in thought and a rectified heart
are all part of showing illustrious virtue; in other words, they are all ways toward
moral cultivation. Following both the progressive and recursive orders, it clearly
shows that without taking “studying things” as the starting point, it is not possible
to combine what is known with what can be known, nor to create a moral reso-
nance between the external world and the inner self. On the other hand, without
sincerity in thought or a rectified heart, it is not possible to know and act according
to universal virtues. That is why expounding illustrious virtue is not only the
prerogative of officials, aristocrats, or rulers but something everyone, the Son of
Heaven and all commoners, have to try hard to achieve. These virtues need to be
acquired by each individual member of society, which is why studying things to
acquire knowledge, being sincere in thought, and rectifying one’s heart become in
turn the preconditions for expounding illustrious virtue. This is where “self-
cultivation” comes into play, since it too requires studying to acquire knowledge,
sincerity in thought, and a rectified heart to reach the ideal moral state. Zhu Xi
continues by saying that the body is both the basis of and the subject of moral
cultivation. The heart is the spirit and master of the body. By combining body and
heart, overcoming the weaknesses of flesh and spirit and refusing self-deception, it
is possible to know and act according to universal virtues. Starting from “regu-
lating one’s family affairs” the focus is on renewing both the self and the people,
not on moral cultivation per se. In both these quotes (previous paragraph), the