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Post-Millennium Research Into Confucianism 149

Thus, from the Han Dynasty to the Qing Dynasty, it was not that Confucianism had
to depend on a certain dynasty for survival, rather that in order to inherit the
Mandate of Heaven the dynastic rulers needed to prove that they were able to
advocate Confucianism, and at its core, the study of Confucian classics, as proof of
a dynasty’s legitimacy.
The combination of a rational historical account with a strong emotional
component is a key feature of the narrative style of the Confucian doctrine’s
academic and intellectual history; and was a style that was extremely inspira-
tional. It was precisely for this reason that the “four-sentence teachings” of Zhang
Zai (张载 1020–1977) of the Northern Song Dynasty—To ordain conscience for
Heaven and Earth; To secure life and fortune for the people; To continue lost
teachings for past sages; To establish peace for all future generations (为天地立志,
为生民立道, 为去圣继绝学, 为万世开太平) (Zhang, 1978, p. 320) —have been
serving as the core tenet of Confucian orthodoxy for thousands of years and have
resonated strongly with its scholars past and present, inspiring a strong sense of
purpose and confidence.
More recently, as China’s history in the last century shows, when the concept
of “All Under Heaven” (天下) was transformed into a national and state con-
sciousness, Confucianism was projected with fervent patriotism, in addition to the
strong moral consciousness mentioned earlier. While Confucianism’s doctrinal
narrative theme of “extinction—revival” might appeal solely to intellectuals within
its school of thought, the strong national sentiment of the 20th century has so far,
appealed greatly not just to believers in Confucian thought, but also to the Chinese
people as a whole, non-believers, as well as intellectuals. When the belief in the
notion of “All Under Heaven” was transformed into the belief in China as a nation
and state, the revival of Confucian teachings provided people with a cultural
identity and gave them a sense of belonging. It replaced the idea of a “distinction
between China and foreign lands” (夷夏之辨) that hitherto corresponded to the
concept of “All Under Heaven.”
Alternatively, it can be said that the awareness of the Confucian revival that
accompanied the construction of the nation and state was in fact a “compensatory
mechanism” (代偿机制) that functioned in a similar way to the idea of a
“distinction between China and foreign lands” that was found previously in the
“All Under Heaven” template. Building a sense of identity through culture,
establishing a cultural identity, and bringing about cultural pride and appeal are
examples of this.
Confucianism had this “distinction” and status partly because in the late 19th
and early 20th centuries when the classical idea of “All Under Heaven” could not
be easily adapted into the modern-day concept of “states,” (列国) the construction
of the nation and state was inseparable from the self-identification of a national